Exercising on regular basis for a long time has been known to promote physical health.

Regular Exercise

As is the case with healthy nutrition, exercise also positively affects both your physical well-being and your mental well-being. For example, regular exercise has a beneficial influence on the prevention and course of depression, anxiety disorders and dementia.

Furthermore, exercise promotes cognitive functioning, especially executive function (which includes planning, multi-tasking, concentration; the effect on executive functioning is the most abundant) and memory. These effects seem to increase with age. In addition, exercise is related to increased determination and better coping with stress.

To obtain maximum effect, exercise should be done regularly -approximately 2 to 3 times a week- and should be of at least moderate intensity (that means, more intense than just walking) for at least 30 minutes each time. Both stamina- or fitness training are equally effective, although combination of both is thought to be slightly better.

A couple of mechanisms underlie the positive effects of exercise, which in some way resemble these of nutrition (therefore it might be useful to read Why Eating Healthy can Prevent Depression.)

Regular exercise increases the brain cells in the prefrontal cortex

Prefrontal cortex development

For example, exercise is associated with an increase of brain cells in the prefrontal cortex (the region involved in executive function, colored red in the picture on the right) and the hippocampus (memory). This is probably caused by increase in neurotrophic factors, including BDNF.

Another positive effect of exercise, is it reduces oxidative stress and inflammation, for example by activating a substance called PGC1α.

Decreasing mental stress

Furthermore, exercise leads to a decrease in cortisol levels and reactivity, thereby also decreasing mental stress. (Just like visiting nature reduces stress by the way!)

Finally, exercise implies the use of positive thinking strategies, such as having a goal, feeling of achievement and self-consciousness.

All in all, exercising on regular basis promotes both your physical- and mental well-being.

Check out more tips for decreasing mental stress here.

The Lighthouse, not an easy place to get to.

Introduction

Ludwig Wittgenstein and Virginia Woolf led parallel lives in 1930’s England. Although they probably never met, they had common friends and shared the same cultural atmosphere. There are many similarities in their approach to their crafts and to ordinary life and language. They both opposed ‘grand narratives’ and turned their attention to the details of the ordinary, daily life. In this article, I shall try to summarize and underline the similarities of their views on ordinary life.

Wittgenstein: Where philosophers have gone wrong

Wittgenstein turned to philosophy from engineering, under the influence of mathematically inclined philosophers Frege and Russell and was preoccupied by philosophy of logic during his early years in philosophy.

The result of these years was the cryptic treatise “Tractatus-Logico Philosophicus” in which he tried to construct a theory of language based on logic. Assuming he had solved all the problems of philosophy, Wittgenstein took a ten year break from the subject, and on his return he developed the second phase of his philosophy, which is among other things, a critique of Tractatus and giving priority to logic over ordinary language.

His posthumously published work “Philosophical Investigations” was written in this period. In this work, he abandoned the ‘crystalline purity of logic’ and turned his attention to the ordinary, everyday language; just because the logical language is of no help for the daily life in which we use ordinary language:

“The more narrowly we examine actual language, the sharper becomes the conflict between it and our requirement. (…) The conflict becomes intolerable; the requirement is now in danger of becoming empty. — We have got on to slippery ice where there is no friction and so in a certain sense the conditions are ideal, but also, just because of that, we are unable to walk. We want to walk: so we need friction. Back to the rough ground!” [2,107]

Ludwig Josef Johann Wittgenstein (1889-1951)

Wittgenstein asserts that the age old philosophical problems cannot be solved, but can only be dissolved, since they result from misunderstanding the grammar of the daily language. The task of the philosopher is to clarify the misunderstandings and to show where the ‘philosophers’ have gone wrong. Philosophy, as he envisages it, is a kind of therapy, and tries to “show the fly the way out of the bottle” [2 ,309].

Wittgenstein advocates turning away from the ‘big perennial questions’ of philosophy and paying more attention to our ordinary social ways of being with others. To understand the meaning of a word, sentence or proposition required not analyzing its logical form, but rather turning to the context, to the language game, in which they are used.

Woolf: Matches struck unexpectedly in the dark

Virginia Woolf was an artist and expressed her views in her novels. In them, she tried new methods of writing, investigated the gender roles and meaning of life. Her voice in the novel ‘To the Lighthouse’; Lilly Briscoe contemplates:

“What is the meaning of life? That was all – a simple question; one that tended to close in on one with years. The great revelation had never come. The great revelation perhaps never did come. Instead there were little daily miracles, illuminations, matches struck unexpectedly in the dark”[3].

Woolf did not look for the ‘meaning of life’ in grand theories but tried to discover little epiphanies, small and sudden instances of enlightenment. She resisted simple reductionist explanations that reveal the ‘true’ nature of primary goods such as friendship, beauty, art, love. The philosophical justification of this attitude comes from G.E.Moore, who claims that “Good cannot be empirically or scientifically tested or verified – it is not within the bounds of “natural science”.[4]” As a connection to Woolf, Wittgenstein also liked and appreciated opinions of Moore, unlike most of the philosophers of his time.

Virginia Woolf (1882-1941)

Nothing was simply one thing

Woolf was interested in becoming intimate with her subject, rather than defining and explaining it. She knew that the complex reality can have multiple meanings depending on the context. At the end of the novel, James, seeing the Lighthouse from near, comparing it with his childhood imagery, thinks:

“The Lighthouse was then a silvery, misty-looking tower with a yellow eye, that opened suddenly, and softly in the evening. Now- James looked at the Lighthouse. He could see the white-washed rocks; the tower, stark and straight; he could see that it was barred with black and white; he could see windows in it; he could even see washing spread on the rocks to dry. So that was the Lighthouse, was it? No, the other was also the Lighthouse. For nothing was simply one thing. The other Lighthouse was true too.” [3].

Reconciling complex thoughts, images, characters and creating a world that looks like ‘real’ and unified in the complexity, was the task of the artist for Virginia Woolf.  Her approach to fiction and art can easily find a philosophical counterpart in Wittgenstein’s philosophy. They both eschewed grand theories and tried to look closely to the details of ordinary human life. From this approach, Wittgenstein derived his later philosophy; Woolf created her fiction.

Sources:
Monk, R., 1991, Ludwig Wittgenstein: The Duty of Genius
Wittgenstein, L, 1953, Philosophical Investigations
Woolf, V., 1927, To the Lighthouse

Salmon is a great source of Omega-3!

“You are what you eat”, is an old saying which expresses the link between well-being and nutrition.

Since about a century, clear associations have been laid between dietary habits and physical well-being, such as the risk of developing diabetes and cardiovascular diseases. Besides physical well-being, mental well-being is affected by nutrition as well. Although this might not come as a surprise, scientific evidence for this is fairly new. Also unsurprising is the notion that nutrients that positively affect physical health likewise promote mental health.

In this article, I will review the most relevant nutritional advice and its underlying mechanisms in order to promote mental well-being. This will be corroborated with concrete advice to improve your own dietary habit, subsequent cognitive performance and mood. At the end of this article, there is a table with an overview of supplements and advised doses.

The Benefits of Omega-3

Omega-3, or ω-3, is an essential unsaturated fatty acid, which means it is a type of fat which cannot be synthetized by the body itself and it is family of the unsaturated fatty acids, which shall be clarified later on.

Adequate consumption of ω-3, which is mostly present in fish such as salmon, anchovies and herring, reduces the risk of developing a depression with almost 50%! This is thought to be the main reason why depression incidence rates in Japan are much lower than in Western countries. Furthermore, ω-3 supplementation reduces stress and improves memory functioning.

The Hippocampus

These positive effects of ω-3 are explained by a couple of biological mechanisms. For example, ω-3 increases the production of a substance called Brain Derived Neurotrophic Factor, or BDNF. BDNF is a protein which promotes the growth of new brain cells, especially in the region involved in memory functioning, called ‘the hippocampus’ (marked red in the picture on the right). Higher BDNF is also associated with a reduced risk of developing depression.

Furthermore, ω-3supplementation is associated with lower levels of the stress hormone cortisol (and as a consequence mental stress), and reduced inflammation (a very important- and interesting mechanism in mental health, but one that is very complex and shall not be discussed in this article).

Polyphenols

Polyphenols are natural compounds of plant-based products such as fruits (especially berries), vegetables, cacao, green tea and (red) wine. Polyphenol supplementation is associated with a decrease in the incidence of depression and anxiety, and an increase in memory function. Visiting nature on a regular basis is also a great way to avoid depression.

Polyphenols are well known for its anti-oxidant effect, which means they ameliorate oxidative stress. Oxidative stress is an overexpression of reactive oxygen species (ROS), a by-product of energy formation in the body. The production of ROS is normal (as we all need energy for maintaining our body functions), but they are toxic to the body (including the brain). In fact, ROS are thought to be the main cause for the process of aging. The body tries to reduce the toxic effect of ROS with specific enzymatic processes. These enzymatic processes in turn, can be corroborated by polyphenols, thus indirectly improving brain cell longevity and cognitive functioning.

Besides their inhibition of oxidative stress (probably their main effect), polyphenols affect mental well-being in several other ways, including the increase of BDNF expression.

Fat reduction

Another well-established nutritional advice is the reduction of fat food. More specifically, this implies a reduction in saturated fats and especially trans fats, in favor of unsaturated fats (like the abovementioned omega-3). Trans fats are frequently used in fabricated products, because they are better conservable than saturated an unsaturated fats. They are especially present in fast-food and fatty bakery products (such as doughnuts or cake).

Increased consumption declines cognitive performance and increases the risk of developing depression up to almost 50%! Trans fats more or less reverse the effects carried out by omega-3 (i.e. an increase in inflammation and a decrease in BDNF). Furthermore, their consumption has a co-occurrence with high caloric intake. High caloric intake also has negative effects, including developing obesity (and indirectly mental well-being via mechanisms which shall not be discussed further) and the increase in oxidative stress. Interestingly, there is new evidence that caloric restriction -probably due to mechanisms including reduction in oxidative stress- reduces the effect of aging and opens new ways of treating progeria (a disease characterized by early aging).

So, try to avoid food that contains trans fats and try to restrict your caloric intake!

Vitamins and minerals

As vitamins are nutritional compounds that are not produced sufficiently by the body itself, their intake is essential. Evidence that specific vitamin supplementations increases cognitive performance and well-being is less concrete. Some vitamins seem to have a small positive effect, namely vitamin B6, B9 (folic acid), B12, D and E.

The association between B vitamin supplementation and mental well-being seems to be especially based on its effect of lowering homocysteine. Homocysteine is normal break-down product of the body that can induce oxidative stress, and high levels of homocysteine are related to an increased incidence of Alzheimer and depression. B vitamins are present in meat, fish and dairy products, and are almost only consumed too less by vegetarians.

Low levels of vitamin D have been related to decrease in cognitive performance and increased risk of Alzheimer and depression. Its positive effect on mental well-being is caused by reducing inflammation and oxidative stress. Vitamin D is present in lots of products including dairy products, fish and mushrooms, but is also produced by the body under influence of sunlight.

Vitamin E is a vitamin that reduces oxidative stress and therefore its intake is also beneficial for well-being. Vitamin E is present in grapes, nuts(almonds), seeds and vegetables(spinach).

Of the minerals, especially zinc deserves some attention. Zinc supplementation is related to improved memory. This is probably because zinc stimulates the expression of BDNF, and is inhibits the effect of cortisol. Zinc is present in meat, fish, dairy products and seeds.

I would recommend this site for further consulting of nutrition resources: http://ods.od.nih.gov/

It takes a lot of self-discipline and willpower to become a true Stotan.

Stotan Philosophy

“A Stotan is one who hardens, strengthens, toughens and beautifies the body by consistent habits and regular exercises, which are consciously and irrevocably made part of the life plan of the individual, as well as consciously determining that the mind will be cultivated upon such abstractions as purity, beauty and logic. Erudition, in as complete a degree as possible, shall be the lifelong aim: Truth, in relation to all aspects of life, the unending search.

Stotans will, by virtue of their philosophy, be nature lovers, with a respect and appreciation of all evolved and created things. They will appreciate the sanctity of creative effort both in themselves and in others. They will strive to understand the significance implied by reality, will be able to discern the real from the spurious.

Stotans, for all the reasons that their philosophy stands for (viz:hardness, toughness, unswerving devotion to an ideal) would look upon the sea as their pristine element and endeavor to associate themselves with their primeval source of life by going into the sea at least once per month in all seasons of the year. No practice is more disposed to toughen, both the body and the morale, than this.

One of the world’s most brilliant athletics coaches.

Stotans believe that neither the body nor the mind can be maintained at a high pitch of efficiency unless sufficient and regular rest is obtained, and aim at a average of 8 hours sleep. Stotans shall so regulate their lives that at the end of a period varying with the intensity of the effort, each shall realize that they have attained, without conscious striving, to a state of knowledge, and a position of leadership in the community (editor:as several Cerutty trained athletes eventually did).

It is axiomatic that only the pure can understand purity, only the cultivated appreciate beauty, and only the strong truly measure their strength. Therefore, only the self-disciplined can command genuine respect. (Check out Building Discipline in the Art of Running for more about this)

Percy Cerutty Said:

A program shall be aimed at which shall be designed to train each Stotan:

a. To withstand severe physical hardship, to accomplish feats of strength and endurance, to understand orderliness, and the true meaning of intelligence.

b.To know himself as an organism and a personality.

c. To emerge,eventually emancipated,from all dogmas, creeds and beliefs, as well as worldly and unworldly hopes and fears.

d. To habitually function upon the highest planes of thought and physical effort.

e. To place the objective of an alert, informed intelligence, and a perfected body, as primary in Life. And to arrive at the conclusion that all else will follow on.

f. To learn that on this basis the whole world, and all that it has to offer, opens out as a vision, splendid, normal and realizable.

g. To understand that Past, Futures, Fates, Fears, Death, Selfishness, Egoism, Pride, Envy, Hate and Prejudice can be replaced by Intelligence that controls emotion, dominates destiny, manifests completeness and exults in life.

h. To understand that in actuality, evolved man is a King, but without the trappings. That Kingship is his right and destiny. That we can make ourselves, in time, all that we would. That we honor real men but are subservient to none.

In addition, Stotans shall train themselves to withstand, stoically, personal criticism, also, skepticism as the necessity or wisdom of such a Way of Life. In this regard, Stotans soon learn they command knowledge, experience and ability not available to the prejudiced, the ignorant or the slothful.

There is no giving up throughout life. The first pre-requisite for a Stotan is tenacity.

To live this Way of Life can be hard. It is not for weaklings. It is the Way that is travelled by all the truly great ones. It requires strenuous effort of body and mind.”

This is an excerpt from Percy Cerutty’s writing. He was a running and athletics coach, philosopher and mastered the skill of self-discipline.
Find out more about Percy Cerutty here.

The Free Self-Discipline eBook: Do it Your Self-Discipline

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First of all, I’d like to thank you for reading my eBook! It shows that you take your own development seriously and that you’re willing to learn more about self-discipline. I admire that greatly!

As you have probably noticed, this eBook featured the first 10 self-discipline techniques that I’ve covered on my blog, put together into one nice printable eBook for you to read.

Now that you have read the materials covered in this book, it will be all up to you to go out and apply the things you’ve learned in your daily life.

Whether you have read the eBook cover to cover, or have just gone through a couple of the techniques, please tell me what you think by commenting below!

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Ralph Waldo Emerson (1803-1882)

A Continuation of the Enlightenment Tradition

Introduction:

This paper compares the views of two historical figures, Nietzsche and Emerson, on how the cultivation of self-reliance can not only be seen as a continuation of the Enlightenment, but as the foundation for our contemporary self-help movement as well. Firstly, the (somewhat practical) philosophy of Ralph Waldo Emerson will be discussed, followed by Friedrich Nietzsche’s views on this matter.

Emerson as The First Self-Help Author

Reading Emerson’s ‘Self-Reliance’, it immediately becomes obvious that this man has laid the foundation for what we nowadays call ‘self-help’. The reliance on the self, the non-conformity approach to life and the to aversion to mediocrity are all things that that Emerson wrote about before the second half of the 19th century.

Nowadays, more self-help books are written than ever before. Some find their roots in the academic world, while others, like Emerson’s writing, are based purely upon an introspective journey and daring to think for oneself. The phrase ‘daring to think for oneself’ (Sapere Aude) is one that we have encountered before in a very important period, namely the Enlightenment. Kant introduced this sentence in his essay Answering the Question: What is Enlightenment?, in which he discussed the causes for a lack of Enlightenment.

Emerson continues this way of thinking in encouraging people to think and act for themself. His essay is highly encouraging and empowering and most people will find themselves in an alleviated and inspired mood after reading it. Essentially, one could say that Emerson finished what Kant started 60 years earlier: Emerson took the responsibility to encourage people to think for themselves and to realize their true potential.

“He is no longer upright; he dares not say ‘I think’, ‘I am, but quotes some saint or sage. He is ashamed before the blade of grass or the blowing rose. These roses unde my window make no reference to former or to better ones; they are for what they are; they exist with God to-day.”

Nietzsche’s ‘No Excuses’ Approach to Life

The funny thing about the connection between Nietzsche and Emerson is that when you read Emerson before Nietzsche, it is clear that Nietzsche was inspired by Emserson. Yet when you read them the other way around, it looks like Emerson was inspired by Nietzsche. Obviously, the latter can’t be the case, but as moral philosophers they have concerned themselves with the same dillemas and ideas and defined for once and for all what individualism is all about.

“For one thing is needful: that a human being attain his satisfaction with himself–whether it be by this or by that poetry and art; only then is a human being at all tolerable to behold.”

Nietzsche’s ‘Thus Spoke Zarathustra’

There is a sense in which Nietzsche’s ‘Will to Power’ ideas are the Enlightenment ideas in extreme. Often misinterpreted, Nietzsche’s ‘Will to Power’ explains the forces that drive humans and human behavior. The striving towards the highest possible position in life, the manifestations of achievement and ambition and individual power all come from the general will to power that lies within every human.

Often, they don’t come to expression and these people tend to live like, as Nietzsche puts it “shy deer hidden in the woods”, afraid to let the will to power that lies within them come to expression and action.

Conclusion

So the idea of reliance on the self and the putting into practice of this idea belong to the core of both Nietzsche’s and Emerson’s ideas. Where Enlightenment philosophers have started to illustrate the importance of non-conformity and the blind reliance of faith, both Nietsche and Emerson have expanded upon these ideas by literally encouraging people to do so (Emerson) and showing this journey through a novel (Nietzsche). I would like to finish this essay by citing a poem from Nietzsche’s Thus Spoke Zarathustra.

O man, take care!
What does the deep midnight declare?
“I was asleep—
From a deep dream I woke and swear:—
The world is deep,
Deeper than day had been aware.
Deep is its woe—
Joy—deeper yet than agony:
Woe implores: Go!
But all joy wants eternity—
Wants deep, wants deep eternity.

Sources:
Emerson, R.W., 1841: Essays: First Series, Self-Reliance
Nietzsche, F.W., 1884, Thus Spoke Zarathustra
Nietzsche, F.W., 1882, The Gay Science
Kant, I., 1784, Beantwortung der Frage: Was Ist Aufklärung?

Portrait of Friedrich Nietzsche by Edvard Munch 1906

 Introduction

This essay will illustrate how Freud’s views on art and aesthetics compare with Nietzsche’s views on this matter. By going through some of the great works of both of these historical figures, it will become clear which aspects of art can serve as a genuine palliative measure, if any. Firstly however, it is necessary to define ‘palliative measure’ and to see whether Freud and Nietzsche would have been in agreement about this definition.

Palliative Measure

A palliative measure is measure that offers a form of relief, without taking the cause away that lies at the heart of the need for a reassuring measure. It does not solve problems, but it helps one to cope with them.

Freud’s View on Art

What Freud thoughts were on art becomes clear by reading his paper ‘The Moses of Michelangelo’, published in 1914. In this paper Freud starts off by explaining that he is by no means a connoisseur of art, but a simple layman. He tells us that he especially appreciates literature and sculpture and that he finds painting and music more difficult to appreciate.

Whenever he cannot explain what the effect of the art is due to “I am almost incapable of obtaining any pleasure”, he says. He especially finds this difficult in music. He psychoanalyses himself by saying: “Some rationalistic, or perhaps analytic, turn of mind in me turns against being moved by a thing without knowing why I am thus affected and what it is that affects me”. We feel overawed by certain works of art, yet we cannot put our finger on what it is that they actually represent.

For Freud, it seems, the only true form of relief comes when one understands the artist and his or her intention. Freud beliefs that the intention of the artist can be communicated in words, as well as through the artform that the artist has chosen. But how can we find out what the intention of the artist was and understand the mental processes that have been involved in creating the work of art? Freud answers this question by saying “Perhaps where great works are concerned this would never be possible without the application of psyco-analysis.”

Psycho-analysis is his answer to understanding and appreciating art. The ‘palliative measure’ of art is understanding where the artist is coming from, what he has been through and why he expresses himself in the way that he does. That allows one to feel what the artist felt. That is the comforting nature of art.

Nietzsche on Art and Aestetics

In ‘Twilight of the Idols’ Nietzsche expresses his view on art and aesthetics very clearly by saying: “Nothing is beautiful, except for man alone: all aesthetics rests upon his naïveté.” That is to say: what is beautiful and what is not lies in the eyes of the beholder. In contrast to Freud, Nietzsche doesn’t need to have explained all the mental processes and past of the artist in order to appreciate it. Whether one likes a certain piece of art or not, is a matter of one’s own taste and choice.

Nietzsche is often said to have been a nihilist. Nothing could be further from the truth actually. (Unfortunately, it is not within the scope of this paper to eleborate on this matter.) One of the ways for Nietzsche to overcome nihilism is through art. In his work from 1881 ‘The Dawn’ he writes: “Art as the single superior counterforce against all will to negation of life, art as the anti-Christian, anti-Buddhist, anti-Nihilist par excellence.“
This is the palliative measure of art. It can be used to overthrow nihilism, the conventions of religion and the will to negation of life.

Sigmund Freud, famously with his cigar (1856-1939)

In section 178 of the second part of ‘Human, All Too Human’, Nietzsche explains how many a good artist is unwittingly impelled to a ‘restoration’ way of thinking, for which, on his own account, the artist “prepares a quiet little corner and garden“. Art can have a soothing function in that it gives an artist the freedom to select an epoch of his choice and revive the intellectual and social conditions of this period, by means of a brief resurrection.

Conclusion

Both Freud and Nietzsche acknowledge the palliative measure that art has to offer. However, they differ in their views on art and in the way that they appreciate different forms of art. For Freud, to appreciate art means to understand the psyche of the artist and thereby truly grasp the meaning of the work of art that has been created by the artist. For Nietzsche, the value and beauty of art lies in the eyes of the beholder. He himself sees art as a way to overcome, among other things, nihilism.

Sources:

Freud, S.S., 1914, The Moses of Michelangelo
Wollheim, R., 1991, Freud and the Understanding of Art
Nietzsche, F.W., 1889, Twilight of the Idols
Nietzsche, F.W., 1881, The Dawn
Nietzsche, F.W., 1879, Human, All Too Human

Charles Robert Darwin (1809-1882)

This paper will compare Darwins view of the ‘persistent effects of the past’ with Friedrich Nietzsche’s view on this matter. Firstly, the similarities between Darwin and Nietzsche will be discussed. Secondly, light will be thrown upon the differences between these two historical figures regarding their ideas about the past. Finally, the conclusion will sum up the most important ideas discussed in this paper.

Darwin and Nietzsche on man’s lowly origin

According to the English naturalist Charles Darwin ‘the human race is not the goal of evolution, but one of its products‘. The same goes for all of the other animal species that exists; they are all products of evolution.

Unpopularly, Darwin did not try to find out what God had in mind with the whole universe, but instead he tried to find out how all of the different species came about. His theory of natural selection showed that man is not a divine creature put on earth by an unmoved mover of some kind (what some religions refer to as God), but that man evolved out of a form of ‘lowly origin’, a being that was not self-conscious nor able to talk.

This being can be traced back all the way to the first one-celled organism on the planet. Darwin showed that the persistent effects of the past have determined the future in ways that no one dared to imagine at that time. Right now, slowly but most definitely, our species is evolving into a new form of being. Our past and present are shaping our future and we will always find in the present the indelible stamp of our yesterday selves.

In ‘The Descent of Man’, Darwin says in defence of his theories: “He who has seen a savage in his native land will not feel much shame, if forced to acknowledge that the blood of some more humble creature flows in his veins.”

In the second half of the 19th century, the German philosopher and philologist Friedrich Wilhelm Nietzsche put his indelible stamp on the world. His ideas were so radical, daring and often too honest for the time he lived in. In a part of his ‘Nachlass’, his literary estate, Nietzsche has explained his views on the persistent effects of our past beautifully: “Experienced people do not like to return to areas and people that they have once loved so dearly. Happiness and seperation have to be tied together at their ends; that’s how you carry on the treasure.” (Note: unable to find an English translation of this quote, I took the liberty of translating it)

In the first part of ‘Human, all too human’, Nietzsche explains further how we always carry our pasts selves within us. In section 248 of the numbered sections he says: “Our age gives the impression of being an interim; the old views on life, the old creatures are still evident in part, the new ones not yet sure and habitual, and therefore lacking in unity and consistency.”

Friedrich Wilhelm Nietzsche (1844-1900)

What Nietzsche is really saying is that no matter how badly we want to let go of our past selves, we will always be reminded of of them and we will never be fully able to erase them from our memories. In order to find happiness and rest, we must tie the old and the new together, even though our past is the heaviest burden.

Nietzsche takes ‘selection’ to the next level

Nietzsche not only accepted Darwins ideas on natural selection and evolution, he takes these ideas to the next level by applying them to sociological- and cultural selection and even selection of the self. Where Darwin was seeking for the truth behind man’s evolution, Nietzsche took up a form of Neo-Darwinism that went way beyond plain observations about man’s existence.

In ‘Also Sprach Zarathustra’, Nietzsche turns against altruism and herd morality as well as the democratic values of  domestication and equality. Where Darwin just made observations without trying to get a particular and motivated message across, Nietzsche is taking Darwin’s observations and uses them in his theory of ‘Will to Power’.

The Will to Power is the force that drives humans to achievement, reaching their ambitions and the higgest possible thing that they can achieve in their position. This gives rise to the question: Does Will to Power explain the concept of natural selection, or vice versa? (You can read Richardson’s book: Nietzsche’s New Darwinism if you’re interested.)

Conclusion

Both Darwin and Nietzsche admit that we will always bear the indelible stamp of our lowly origin, be it the being out of which we evolved, or our own past selves. But where Darwin made groundbreaking observations about our origins and those of all the other species, Nietzsche took these observations to form his own moral theories.

Sources:
Darwin, C., 1859, On the Origin of Species by Means of Natural Selection
Darwin, C., 1871, The Descent of Man
Nietzsche, F.W., 1878, Human, all too Human
Nietzsche, F.W., 1869-1874, On the Uses and Disadvantages of History for Life
Richardson, J., 2004, Nietzsche’s New Darwinism

Both Darwin and Nietzsche admit that we will always bear the indelible stamp of our lowly origin, be it the being out of which we evolved, or our own past selves. But where Darwin made groundbreaking observations about our origins and those of all the other species, Nietzsche took these observations to form his own moral theories.

Gustave Flaubert (1821-1880)

Introduction

This essay deliberately compares the philosopher Rousseau with the novelist Flaubert, because both of them turned against a certain movement and period while being completely absorbed in that period. Light will be thrown upon the views of both of these men regarding the idea of ‘historical progress’.

The Death of Madame Bovary

Flaubert’s groundbreaking novel ‘Madame Bovary’ presents a very modern and realistic writing that had not been seen before in the second part of the 19th century. Flaubert expresses his ideas and opinions on modernity and the Enlightenment through attacking its counterpart, namely Romanticism. Romanticism was a reaction against the Enlightenment, emphasizing the heart, emotions, feeling, conflict, authenticity and honesty. The use of vibrant color and showing the turbulance of nature were ways of expressing the romantic views and expose the baundaries of rationality. Because ‘the guts of life are out of balance’, the way of expressing oneself had to be out of balance as well for the romanticists. Flaubert understands Romanticism inside out, but he thinks it leads to stupidity and cliché. Clichés, for Flaubert, indicate an inability to think for oneself and are a sign of stupidity. In a beautifully crafted scène of Madame Bovary, the dance with the Viscount, Flaubert shows that he knows what Romanticism is all about: “They turned; all around them was turning— the lamps, the furniture, the wainscoting, the floor, like a disc on a pivot. On passing near the doors the bottom of Emma’s dress caught against his trousers.”

Madame Bovary, mostly lost in her world of dreams and fantasies throughout the novel, represents Romanticism. She is always on a quest for utopian love, the love that is so perfect that it cannot be. But Flaubert doomed it this Romanticism. He gave it a slow, painful and tragic death.

Madame Bovary – Flaubert’s most famous work

Just like Rousseau understood the Enlightenment perfectly, he rejected it ultimately because he thought that it led to corruption and inauthenticity. Rousseau therefore has the same reflexive take on the Enlightenment as Flaubert has on Romanticism. If Rousseau would have written a novel like Madame Bovary, he would probably have given the Enlightenment a slow and painful death.

Views on Historical Progress

The Industrial Revolution (1760-1840) has been a major turning point in the history of the planet and the human race. It is one of the ultimate signs of progress and it goes hand in hand with the Enlightenment. But is Enlightenment and progress really what we all should strive for? Rousseau admits in his Confessions: “Has the progress of sciences and arts done more to currupt morals, or to improve them? The moment I read this, I beheld another universe and became another man”. After reading that newspaper headline, Rousseau started thinking about historical progress and its implications. Progress, he decided, promotes inequality, the demand for distinction, inauthenticity and dishonesty. Rousseau has illustrated the flipside of progress and the Enlightenment in his famous discourses: the ‘Discourse on the Origins of Inequality’ and the ‘Discourse on the Arts and Sciences’.

Jean-Jaques Rousseau (1712-1778)

Progress brings conveniences. We can make machines do our work, travel faster, cure diseases and enjoy newly discovered luxuries. For Rousseau, progress and the conveniences that it brings are not what they look like on first sight. They are a devil in disguise: “Since these conveniences, by becoming habitual, had almost entirely ceased to be enjoyable, and at the same time degenerated into true needs, it became much more cruel to be deprived of them than to possess them was sweet, and men were unhappy to lose them without being happy to possess them”. In short, progress makes us become dependant upon things that we were not dependant upon before their invention.

Flaubert, although he turns against Romanticism, is not an advocate of the Enlightenment either. He wants to see progress in his own work up to the point of perfection. He turns to art, away from history and away from Romanticism. He says in one of his letters to Louise: “Passion does not make verses; and the more personal you are, the weaker… The less you feel a thing, the more capable you are of expressing it as it is.” His dissolutionment with the world is a turn to aestetics, perfect artwork. Whereas Rousseau’s dissolutionment is a return to a natural and authentic state of being.

Conclusion

Historical progress for Rousseau has caused the Enlightenment and the Enlightenment promotes inequality, inauthenticity and causes people to become dependant upon things on which they weren’t dependant before. Flaubert does not bother with historical progress, or with changing society. He does not appreciate Romanticism, because he only cares about ‘the perfect sentence’, perfect art.

Sources:
Rousseau, J., 1754, A Discourse Upon the Origin and the Foundation of the Inequality Among Mankind
Rousseau, J., 1750, A Discourse on the Moral Effects of the Arts and Sciences
Flaubert, G., 1856, Madame Bovary
Rousseau, J., 1852, Letter to Louise Colet
Roth, M.S., 2013, Video Lecture Series